Nerva - Roman Emperor: 96 -98 A.D.
Nerva (Latin:
Marcus Cocceius Nerva Caesar Augustus;
8 November, 30 AD – 27 January, 98 AD), was
Roman Emperor from 96 to 98. Nerva became Emperor at the age of
sixty-five, after a lifetime of imperial service under
Nero and
the rulers of the
Flavian dynasty. Under Nero, he was a member of the imperial
entourage and played a vital part in exposing the
Pisonian conspiracy of 65. Later, as a loyalist to the Flavians, he
attained
consulships in 71 and 90 during the reigns of
 Vespasian
and
Domitian respectively.
On 18 September 96, Domitian was assassinated in a palace conspiracy
involving members of the
Praetorian Guard and several of his
freedmen. On the same day, Nerva was declared emperor by the
Roman Senate. This was the first time the Senate elected a Roman
Emperor. As the new ruler of the
Roman Empire, he vowed to restore liberties which had been curtailed
during the autocratic government of Domitian.
Nerva's brief reign was marred by financial difficulties and his
inability to assert his authority over the
Roman army. A revolt by the Praetorian Guard in October 97
essentially forced him to
adopt an heir. After some deliberation Nerva adopted
Trajan,
a young and popular general, as his successor. After barely fifteen
months in office, Nerva died of natural causes on 27 January 98. Upon
his death he was succeeded and
deified by Trajan.
Although much of his life remains obscure, Nerva was considered a
wise and moderate emperor by ancient
historians. Nerva's greatest success was his ability to ensure a
peaceful transition of power after his death, thus founding the
Nerva-Antonine dynasty..
Early career
Family
Marcus Cocceius Nerva was born in the village of
Narni,
50 kilometers north of Rome, to the family of Marcus Cocceius Nerva,
Consul Suffect in 40, and Sergia Plautilla. Ancient sources report
the date as either 30 or 35. He had at least one attested sister, named
Cocceia, who married
Lucius
Salvius Titianus Otho, the brother of the future Emperor
Otho.
Like
Vespasian, the founder of the
Flavian dynasty, Nerva was a member of the Italian nobility rather
than one of the elite of Rome. Nevertheless, the Cocceii were among the
most esteemed and prominent political families of the late
Republic and early Empire, attaining consulships in each successive
generation. The direct ancestors of Nerva on his father's side, all
named
Marcus Cocceius Nerva, were associated with imperial circles since
the time of Emperor
Augustus (27 BC–AD 14).
His great-grandfather was
Consul in 36 BC (in replacement, and abdicated), and Governor of
Asia in the same year. His grandfather became
Consul Suffect in 21 or 22 July, and was known as a personal friend
of Emperor
Tiberius (AD 14–37), accompanying the emperor during his voluntary
seclusion on
Capri from 23 onwards, dying in 33. Nerva's father, finally,
attained the consulship in 40 under emperor
Caligula (37–41). The Cocceii were connected with the
Julio-Claudian dynasty through the marriage of Sergia Plautilla's
brother Octavius Laenas, and
Rubellia Bassa, the great-granddaughter of Tiberius.
Imperial service
Not much of Nerva's early life or career is recorded, but it appears
he did not pursue the
usual administrative or military career. He was
praetor-elect
in the year 65 and, like his ancestors, moved in imperial circles as a
skilled diplomat and strategist. As an advisor to Emperor
Nero, he
successfully helped detect and expose the
Pisonian conspiracy of 65. Exactly what his contribution to the
investigation was is not known but his services must have been
considerable, since they earned him rewards equal to those of Nero's
guard prefect
Tigellinus. He received
triumphal honors—which was usually reserved for military
victories—and the right to have his statues placed throughout the
palace.
According to the contemporary poet
Martial,
Nero also held Nerva's literary abilities in high esteem, hailing him as
the "Tibullus
of our time". Another prominent member of Nero's entourage was Vespasian,
an old and respected general who had celebrated military triumphs during
the 40s. It appears Vespasian befriended Nerva during his time as an
imperial advisor, and may have asked to watch over Vespasian's youngest
son
Domitian when Vespasian departed for the
Jewish war in 67.
The suicide of Nero on 9 July 68 effectively brought an end to the
Julio-Claudian rule. Chaos ensued, leading to a year of brutal
civil
war known as the
Year of the Four Emperors, which saw the successive rise and fall of
the emperors
Galba, Otho
and
Vitellius, until the accession of Vespasian on 21 December 69.
Virtually nothing is known of Nerva's whereabouts during 69, but despite
the fact that Otho was his brother-in-law, he appears to have been one
of the earliest and strongest supporters of the Flavians.
For services unknown, he was rewarded with a consulship early in
Vespasian's reign in 71. This was a remarkable honour, not only because
he held this office early under the new regime, but also because it was
an "ordinary" consulship (instead of a less prestigious suffect
consulship), making him one of the few non-Flavians to be honoured in
this way under Vespasian. After 71 Nerva again disappears from
historical record, presumably continuing his career as an inconspicuous
advisor under Vespasian (69–79) and his sons
Titus
(79–81) and Domitian (81–96).
He re-emerges during the revolt of
Saturninus in 89. On 1 January, 89, the governor of
Germania Superior,
Lucius Antonius Saturninus, and his two legions at
Mainz,
Legio XIV Gemina and
Legio XXI RapaxChatti.
The
governor off
Germania Inferior,
Lappius Maximus, moved to the region at once, assisted by the
procurator of
Rhaetia,
Titus Flavius Norbanus. Within twenty-four days the rebellion was
crushed, and its leaders at Mainz savagely punished. The mutinous
legions were sent to the front of
Illyricum, while those who had assisted in their defeat were duly
rewarded.
Domitian opened the year following the revolt by sharing the
consulship with Nerva. Again, the honour suggested Nerva had played a
part in uncovering the conspiracy, perhaps in a fashion similar to what
he did during the Pisonian conspiracy under Nero. Alternatively,
Domitian may have selected Nerva as his colleague to emphasise the
stability and status-quo of the regime. The revolt had been suppressed,
and the Empire could return to order.
Emperor
Accession
On 18 September, 96, Domitian was assassinated in a palace conspiracy
organised by court officials. The
Fasti
Ostienses, the Ostian Calendar, records that the same day the
Senate proclaimed Marcus Cocceius Nerva emperor. Despite his political
experience, this was a remarkable choice. Nerva was old and childless,
and had spent much of his career out of the public light, prompting both
ancient and modern authors to speculate on his involvement in Domitian's
assassination.
According to Cassius Dio, the conspirators approached Nerva as a
potential successor prior to the assassination, which indicates that he
was at least aware of the plot. Suetonius by contrast does not mention
Nerva, but he may have omitted his role out of tactfulness. Considering
the works of Suetonius were published under Nerva's direct descendants
Trajan and Hadrian, it would have been less than sensitive of him to
suggest the dynasty owed its accession to murder. On the other hand,
Nerva lacked widespread support in the Empire, and as a known Flavian
loyalist his track record would not have recommended him to the
conspirators. The precise facts have been obscured by history, but
modern historians believe Nerva was proclaimed Emperor solely on the
initiative of the Senate, within hours after the news of the
assassination broke.
Although he appeared to be an unlikely candidate on account of his
age and weak health, Nerva was considered a safe choice precisely
because he was old and childless. Furthermore, he had close connections
with the Flavian dynasty and commanded the respect of a substantial part
of the Senate. Nerva had seen the
anarchy which had resulted from the death of Nero in 69; he knew
that to hesitate even for a few hours could lead to violent civil
conflict. Rather than decline the invitation and risk
revolts, he accepted. The decision may have been hasty so as to
avoid civil war, but neither the Senate nor Nerva appears to have been
involved in the conspiracy against Domitian.
Following the accession of Nerva as emperor, the Senate passed
damnatio memoriae on Domitian: his coins and statues were
melted, his
arches were torn down and his name was erased from all public
records. In many instances, existing portraits of Domitian, such as
those found on the
Cancelleria Reliefs, were simply recarved to fit the likeness of
Nerva. This allowed quick production of new images and recycling of
previous material. In addition, the vast palace which Domitian had
erected on the
Palatine Hill, known as the
Flavian Palace, was renamed the "House of the People", and Nerva
himself took up residence in Vespasian's former villa, the
Gardens of Sallust.
Administrationn
The last remaining columns from the largely blind
peristyle surrounding a temple to
Minerva, located at the heart of the
Forum of Nerva. The visible door frame is not an
original element but rather one of the many modifications
suffered during the Middle Ages.
The change of government was a breath of relief for the Roman Senate,
whose senators had suffered under the terrors of Domitian's regime. As
an immediate gesture of goodwill towards his supporters, Nerva publicly
swore that no senators would be put to death as long as he remained in
office. He called an end to trials based on
treasonn, released those who had been imprisoned under these charges,
and granted
amnesty
to many who had been
exiled
All properties which had been confiscated by Domitian were returned
to their respective families. Nerva also sought to involve the Senate in
his government, but this was not entirely successful. He continued to
rely largely on friends and advisors that were known and trusted, and by
maintaining friendly relations with the pro-Domitianic faction of the
Senate, he incurred hostility which may have been the cause for at least
one conspiracy against his life.
Having been proclaimed emperor solely on the initiative of the
Senate, Nerva had to introduce a number of measures to gain support
among the Roman populace. As was custom by this time, a change of
emperor was expected to bring with it a generous payment of gifts and
money to the people and the army. Accordingly, a
congiarium of 75
denarii
per head was bestowed upon the citizens, while the soldiers of the
Praetorian Guard received a
donativum which may have amounted to as much as 5000
denarii
per person. This was followed by a string of economic reforms intended
to alleviate the burden of taxation from the most needy Romans.
To the poorest, Nerva granted allotments of land worth up to 60
million
sesterces. He exempted parents and their children from a 5%
inheritance tax, and he made loans to Italian landowners on the
condition that they pay
interest of 5% to their municipality to support the children of
needy families; alimentary schemes which were later expanded by
Trajan,
Antoninus Pius, and
Marcus Aurelius
Before long, Nerva's expenses strained the economy of Rome and,
although perhaps not ruinous to the extent once suggested by Syme,
necessitated the formation of a special
commission of economy to drastically reduce expenditures. The most
superfluous religious sacrifices,
games
and
horse races were abolished, while new income was generated from
Domitian's former possessions, including the auctioning of ships,
estates, and even furniture. Large amounts of money were obtained from
Domitian's
silver
and gold
statues, and Nerva forbade that similar images be made in his honor.
Because he reigned only briefly, Nerva's public works were few,
instead completing projects which had been initiated under Flavian rule.
This included extensive repairs to the
Roman road system and the expansion of the
aqueducts. The latter program was headed by the former
consul
Sextus Julius Frontinus, who helped to put an end to abuses and
later published a significant work on Rome's water supply,
De Aquis Urbis Romae. The only major landmarks constructed
under Nerva were a
granary,
known as the Horrea Nervae, and a small
Imperial Forum begun by Domitian, which linked the
Forum of Augustus to the
Temple of Peace. Little remains, partly because the
Via dei Fori Imperiali cuts across it.
Crisis of
successionn
army, which had called for his
deification immediately after the assassination. In an attempt to
appease the soldiers of the
Praetorian Guard, Nerva had dismissed their prefect
Titus Petronius Secundus—one of the chief conspirators against
Domitian—and replaced him by a former commander,
Casperius Aelianus.
Likewise, the generous donativum bestowed upon the soldiers
following his accession was expected to swiftly silence any protests
against the violent regime change. The Praetorians considered these
measures insufficient, however, and demanded the execution of Domitian's
assassins, which Nerva refused. Continued dissatisfaction with this
state of affairs would ultimately lead to the gravest crisis of Nerva's
reign.
While the swift transfer of power following Domitian's death had
prevented a
civil
war from erupting, Nerva's position as an emperor soon proved too
vulnerable, and his benign nature turned into a reluctance to assert his
authority. Upon his accession, he had ordered a halt to treason trials,
but at the same time allowed the prosecution of
informers
by the Senate to continue. This measure led to
chaos, as everyone acted in his own interests while trying to settle
scores with personal enemies, leading the consul Fronto to famously
remark that Domitian's tyranny was ultimately preferable to Nerva's
anarchy. Early in 97, a conspiracy led by senator Calpurnius Crassus
failed, but once again Nerva refused to put the conspirators to death,
much to the disapproval of the Senate.
The situation was further aggravated by the absence of a clear
successor, made more pressing because of Nerva's old age and sickness.
He had no natural children of his own and only distant relatives, who
were unsuited for political office. A successor would have to be chosen
from among the
governors or
generals in the Empire and it appears that, by 97, Nerva was
considering to
adopt
Publius Cornelius Nigrinus, the powerful governor of
Syria.
This was covertly opposed by those who supported the more popular
military commander
Marcus
Ulpius Traianus, commonly known as Trajan, a general of the armies
at the
German frontier.
In October 97 these tensions came to a head when the Praetorian
Guard, led by Casperius Aelianus, laid
siege to
the Imperial Palace and took Nerva hostage. He was forced to submit to
their demands, agreeing to hand over those responsible for Domitian's
death and even giving a speech thanking the rebellious Praetorians.
Titus Petronius Secundus and Parthenius, Domitian's former chamberlain,
were sought out and killed. Nerva was unharmed in this assault, but his
authority was damaged beyond repair.
He realized that his position was no longer tenable without the
support of an heir who had the approval of both the army and the people.
Shortly thereafter, he announced the adoption of
Trajan
as his successor, and with this decision all but
abdicated. Trajan was formally bestowed with the title of Caesar and
shared the consulship with Nerva in 98:
|
“ |
Thus
Trajan became Caesar and later emperor, although there were
relatives of Nerva living. But Nerva did not esteem family
relationship above the safety of the State, nor was he less
inclined to adopt Trajan because the latter was a Spaniard
instead of an Italian or Italot, inasmuch as no foreigner had
previously held the Roman sovereignty; for he believed in
looking at a man's ability rather than at his nationality. |
”” |
Edward Gibbon's assertion that Nerva hereby established a tradition
of succession through adoption among the
Five Good Emperorss
Death and legacyy
On 1 January, 98, at the start of his fourth consulship, Nerva
suffered a
stroke during a private audience. Shortly thereafter he was struck
by a fever and died at his villa in the Gardens of Sallust, on 28
January. He was deified by the Senate, and his ashes were laid to rest
in the
Mausoleum of Augustus.
Nerva was succeeded without incident by his adopted son Trajan, who
was greeted by the Roman populace with much enthusiasm. According to
Pliny the Younger, Trajan dedicated a temple in honour of Nerva, yet
no trace of it has ever been found; nor was a commemorative series of
coins for the Deified Nerva issued until ten years after his death.
According to Cassius Dio, however, the
Guard prefect responsible for the mutiny against Nerva, Casperius
Aelianus, was 'dismissed' upon Trajan's accession.
Due to the lack of written sources on this period, much of Nerva's
life has remained obscure. The most substantial surviving account of the
reign of Nerva was written by the 3rd-century historian
Cassius Dio. His Roman History, which spans nearly a
millennium, from the arrival of
Aeneas
in Italy until the year 229, was composed more than hundred years after
Nerva had died. Further details are added by an abridged biography from
the Epitome de Caesaribus, a work alleged to have been authored
by the 4th-century historian
Aurelius Victorr.
Histories, by the contemporary historian
Tacitus.
The Histories is an account of the history of Rome covering three
decades from the suicide of emperor
Nero in 69
until the death of Domitian in 96. Unfortunately, a substantial part of
the work has been lost, with only the first five books covering the
Year of the Four Emperors remaining. In the introduction to his
biography of
Gnaeus Julius Agricola however, Tacitus speaks highly of Nerva,
describing his reign as "the dawn of a most happy age, [when] Nerva
Caesar blended things once irreconcilable, sovereignty and freedom".
The surviving histories speak equally positively of Nerva's brief
reign, although none offer a substantial commentary on his policies.
Both Cassius Dio and Aurelius Victor emphasize his wisdom and
moderation, with Dio commending his decision to adopt Trajan as his
heir. These views were later popularized by the 18th-century historian
Edward Gibbon in his
History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Gibbon
considered Nerva the first of the
Five Good Emperors, five successive rulers under whom the Roman
Empire "was governed by absolute power, under the guidance of wisdom and
virtue" from 96 until 180. Nevertheless, even Gibbon notes that,
compared to his successors, Nerva may have lacked the necessary
qualifications for a successful reign:
|
“ |
Nerva
had scarcely accepted the purple from the assassins of Domitian
before he discovered that his feeble age was unable to stem the
torrent of public disorders which had multiplied under the long
tyranny of his predecessor. His mild disposition was respected
by the good; but the degenerate Romans required a more vigorous
character, whose justice should strike terror into the guilty. |
”” |
coup, but a calculated attempt to put pressure on the emperor. The
adoption of Trajan expanded his power base with a respected, reliable
general as his successor. Murison concludes that Nerva's real talents
were in fact ill-suited to the emperorship:
|
“ |
Nerva
was, it would seem, the ultimate "committee" man. He was not,
apparently, a great orator, and one has the impression that he
functioned better in small groups, where his generally calm
approach to problems will have impressed people. [...] What is
well-known today, however, is that, more often than not, if the
"super committee man" takes on an important administrative job,
the result is quite dreadful. Rome was, indeed, spared
catastrophe; but for all that near-contemporary writers were
"careful" about what they said, Nerva's administration was
fairly inept. It would not be unfair to say that he was a
textbook illustration of what nowadays is called the "Peter
Principle". |
” |
His place in Roman history is therefore summarized as a necessary, if
tumultuous stop-gap before the Trajanic-Antonine dynasties.[18]
It is a fact of
irony
that even the only major public work completed during his reign, the
Forum of Nerva, ultimately became known as the Forum Transitorium,
or transitional forum.
Today statues which commemorate Nerva can be found at
Gloucester, England at the entrance to Southgate Street, and at his
alleged birthplace
Narni in
Italy, at Cocceio Nerva street.
Nerva–Antonine family tree
- (1) = 1st spouse
- (2) = 2nd spouse (not shown)
- (3) = 3rd spouse
- SMALL CAPS = posthumously deified (Augusti,
Augustae, or other)
- dotted lines indicate adoption or (in the case of
Hadrian and
Antinous) alleged lovers
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