Roman Republic L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi moneyer
Silver Denarius 19mm (3.47 grams) Rome mint: 90 B.C.
Reference: Calpurnia 11; B.M.C. 1938-2129; Syd. 663-670
Laureate head of Apollo right, symbol behind head and below chin.
L . PISO FRVGI below horseman galloping right, holding palm, number above.

This is one of the most prolific issues in the whole republican series, the British Museum collection alone contains over 300 different varieties. The type of the head of Apollo and of the horseman refers to the Ludi Apollinares which were established in B.C. 212 the annual celebration of which was proposed by praetor L. Calpurnius Piso, an ancestor of the moneyer. There are four chief varieties of the reverse type: (a) horseman left with torch; (b) horseman left with palm; (c) horseman right with palm: (d) horseman right with whip; these may refer to the different types of horse-racing that took place at the games.

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The Apollinarian games, or Ludi Apollinares, in ancient Rome, were solemn games (ludi) held annually by the Romans in honor of the god Apollo. The tradition goes that at the first celebration hereof, they were suddenly invaded by the enemy, and obliged to take to their arms.;A cloud of darts and arrows fell upon their enemies, and the Romans soon returned victorious to their sports.

 First Ludi

The games were established after inspecting a collection of prophecies, the Carmina Marciana.  One of several seers (vates) responsible for these predictions was Marcius.  The games were organized in accordance with the Oracles of Marcius, which had predicted the disaster at Cannae (the defeat of the Romans by Hannibal).

The prophecies dictated that the Romans should use Greek ritual to honor Diana and Latona, and that they should help contribute to the costs of the games, according to their means. The Sibylline Books were also consulted and confirmed this prophecy. This occurred at the height of the Second Punic War, when Hannibal was invading northern Italy. As in other times, the games were used to allay the public’s fears and distract them from Hannibal’s invasion.

The games were held in the Circo Massimo (Circus Maximus) and had equestrian games as well as stage performances, including praetextae, a category of Roman drama.  Ennius (239-169 BC) had Thyestes performed as part of this festival in 169BC. The ludi Apollinares received less funding from the Roman government than other games/festivals such as the ludi Romani or ludi plebeii, because it was shorter and had only one day of races.

 Timing

The Ludi Apollinares were games which were first organized in 212 BC, when C. Sulla was P. Praetor. Initially a vow was made to hold them only once. There is some discussion as to who officially made them annual games.

One version of events proposes that L. Varus, the praetor urbanus at the time, renewed this vow and celebrated them again in 210 BC. They were made an annual festival by a law in 208 BC by L. Varus, who was then curule aedile. A severe plague in 208 BC may have prompted the Senate to make them permanent, in honor of Apollo, who they regarded as a god of healing. From this day on, they were celebrated on July 13th and eventually grew to last 8 or 9 days.

However, Livy suggests that it was C. Calpurnius Piso, not L. Varus, who made the games permanent as praetor in 211 BC. “The Games of Apollo had been exhibited the previous year, and when the question of their repetition the next year was moved by the praetor Calpurnius, the senate passed a decree that they should be observed for all time.” He continues, “…Such is the origin of the Apollinarian Games, which were instituted for the cause of victory and not, as is generally thought, in the interests of the public health.”

The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilisation characterised by a republican form of government. It began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, c. 509 BC, and lasted over 450 years until its subversion, through a series of civil wars, into the Principate form of government and the Imperial period.

The Roman Republic was governed by a complex constitution, which centred on the principles of a separation of powers and checks and balances. The evolution of the constitution was heavily influenced by the struggle between the aristocracy (the patricians), and other talented Romans who were not from famous families, the plebeians. Early in its history, the republic was controlled by an aristocracy of individuals who could trace their ancestry back to the early history of the kingdom. Over time, the laws that allowed these individuals to dominate the government were repealed, and the result was the emergence of a new aristocracy which depended on the structure of society, rather than the law, to maintain its dominance.

During the first two centuries, the Republic saw its territory expand from central Italy to the entire Mediterranean world. In the next century, Rome grew to dominate North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, Greece, and what is now southern France. During the last two centuries of the Roman Republic, it grew to dominate the rest of modern France, as well as much of the east. At this point, the republican political machinery was replaced with imperialism.

The precise event which signalled the end of the Roman Republic and the transition into the Roman Empire is a matter of interpretation. Towards the end of the period a selection of Roman leaders came to so dominate the political arena that they exceeded the limitations of the Republic as a matter of course. Historians have variously proposed the appointment of Julius Caesar as perpetual dictator in 44 BC, the defeat of Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, and the Roman Senate's grant of extraordinary powers to Octavian (Augustus) under the first settlement in 27 BC, as candidates for the defining pivotal event ending the Republic.

Many of Rome's legal and legislative structures can still be observed throughout Europe and the rest of the world by modern nation state and international organisations. The Romans' Latin language has influenced grammar and vocabulary across parts of Europe and the world.