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Caracalla - Roman Emperor: 198-211 A.D. -
Bronze 23mm (6.6 grams) from the city of Stobi in Macedonia Struck 198-211 A.D.
PIVS AVG V ANTONINVS, laureate and cuirassed bust right, seen from behind.
MVNICI STOBEN, Victory advancing left, holding wreath and palm, wheel at foot.
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Stobi (mod.
Gradsko) was an ancient town of
Paionia, later conquered by
Macedon, and later still incorporated into the
Roman
province of
Macedonia Salutaris (now in the
Republic of Macedonia). It is located on the main road that leads from the
Danube to the
Aegean Sea
and is considered by many to be the most famous archaeological site in the
Republic of Macedonia. Stobi was built where the Erigón river (mod.
River Crna) joins the Axiós river (mod.
Vardar), making
it important strategically as a center for both trade and warfare.
Ruins at Stobi
The
pre-Roman period
Stobi developed from a
Paeonian settlement established in the Archaic period. Located on the
northern side of a terrace, the early town covered an area of about 25,000
square meters. Its proximity to the junction of the
Erigón and
Axiós rivers and its position in the fertile central Vardar valley allowed
it to quickly develop a flourishing economy and establish trade. Nearby
Mount Klepa was a lucrative source of marble. The initial Paeonian
population was later supplemented by other immigrant groups.
In earlier times,
Bylazora
was the Paeonian capital, but later the Paeonians moved their capital to Stobi.
Stobi along with the rest of Paeonia was conquered by the kingdom of
Macedon.
The
Roman period
Roman amphitheatre
In 168 BC,
the
Romans defeated
Perseus and Macedonia was divided into four nominally independent republics.
In 148 BC the
four areas of Macedonia were brought together in a unified Roman province. The
town was first mentioned in
197 BC by
Livius. In the
reign of
Augustus (31 BC-14 AD) the town grew in size and population. The town grew
in 69 AD once it became a
municipium
and coins, with Municipium Stobensium printed on them, were distributed.
The citizens of Stobi enjoyed
Ius
Italicum and were citizens of Rome. Most belonged to the tribes
Aemila and
Tromentina. During Roman times Stobi was the capital of the Roman province
Macedonia Salutaris. Emperor
Theodosius I stayed in Stobi in 388. Late in the 5th century the town
underwent a terrible turn of events. In 479 AD, it was robbed by
Theodoric, an
Ostrogothic king. The citizens reconstructed the town, but in 518 AD was
struck by a powerful earthquake. Avaro-Slavic invasions in the 6th century
ruined the city's economy and infrastructure.
Etymology
The name Stobi is
Paionian and meant "post, pillar" and is akin
Old
Prussian stabis "rock",
Old Church Slavonic stoboru "pillar", English staff,
Old
English stapol "post", and archaic Greek stobos "scolding, bad
language", Macedonian Slavic stolb meaning "post", Greek stephein
"to tie around, encircle", staphyle "grapevine, grape bunch",
Middle
Irish sab "shaft"
[1]. Such a
name may imply that it was the site of a large local cultic pillar, though there
is no evidence of this.
Archaeology
The
Museum of Belgrade was the first and only institution to investigate the
city from 1924 to 1936. Serbian archaeologists first discovered public and
private buildings in the city and then the city's theater, built in the third
century, and religious artifacts from the central and western part of the town.
Research into the city officially ended in 1940. During
World
War II late Hellenistic graves were found in the Palace of Peristerius and
most of these had had buildings built over them. In 1970, between the North and
Central Basilica and in the western necropolis 55 graves were discovered. In
1955 in the southern part of the north basilica 23 Slavic graves, dating from
9th-12th centuries were discovered. Bronze statues from the classical and
archaic periods and ceramic objects from the
Neolithic
era were discovered in the two parts of the civil
basilica
and in the central basilica the older part of the second Synagogue. In the north
basilica architectonic structures and 23 Slavic graves were discovered. The most
significant finds occurred between 1970 and 1980 by
Yugoslav
and
American archaeologists. In this period more buildings were discovered and
new expeditions in the western necropolis, the Casa Romana and in the
aqueduct
network of Stobi revealed more mosaics. From 1981 to 1988 the Episcopal basilica
was unearthed. These researches confirmed predictions concerning the religion,
culture and daily life of its population.
Religion
in Stobi
Baptiserium in the basilica
The Grand Palace near the eastern wall of the city was built during the Roman
period and contains beautiful
frescoes. The
Temple of
Nemesis in the theatre, and religious items related to
Hygeia and
Telesphorus,
Artemis Locheia, Apollo Clarious,
Jupiter,
Dionysus and Hera
were common during this time. In the early Christian period Stobi was an
episcopal see from 325 AD, when bishop Budius took part in the
First Council of Nicaea. Stobi is one of a small number of towns from the
late ancient and early Christian period that kept a large number of mosaics.
From the 4th-5th century several big churches were built, known for their
interior decoration of mosaics and frescoes. Decorative mosaics can also be
found in private luxury buildings from the late Antiquity, such as the Villas of
Theodosius, Policharmosius and Peristerius. New archaeological research has
shown that all Christian basilicas in the city, so far discovered, were built
over ancient buildings.
An ancient
synagogue has also been discovered, dating from the
3rd
or 4th century BC[2],
attesting to a Jewish
presence in the city.
Historical
sites in Stobi
The Northern Basilica. The church has three main parts: a
narthex, an
exonarthex
separated by colonnades and an
atrium constructed mostly of marble. In the northern part there is a
Baptistry and in the southern part are Slavic graves. The church, which was
built at the beginning of the 5th century, can be entered from the street
Via Principalis Inferior. The Civil Basilica is south of the north basilica
and was discovered in 1937. In 1956 archaeologists found that there were seven
building phases. Between the North and Civil Basilicas are the ancient Thermae
Minores, or "Little Baths" made of stone blocks.
The Central Basilica and Synagogue can be entered from the Via
Principalis street. The Central Basilica was built on a Synagogue at the
beginning of the 5th century and had two building phases. The floor of the
Synagogue was discovered 1.5 m (4.9 ft) under the level of the central basilica.
Dating from the 4th century, it was built on an older synagogue from the 3rd
century, created by the father of the Synagogue of Stobi, Tiberius Claudius
Polycharmos. Inside were two vases dating from 121-125.
The House of the Psalms, in front of the central basilica, has a
central room with a mosaic floor, a room with colonnades, a big pool and columns
in the western part of the yard.
Via Axia is one of the main streets in Stobi. Its oriented east-west
and its discovered only small part of the street.
The Main Town Public Fountain is located on a small square created by
the streets Via Axia and Via Principalis Inferior.
The Magnae Thermae, or Big Bath, discovered in 1931, consisted of two
rooms: one large room with a statue and a pool made of stone blocks. The
reconstructed bath was in use until the late 6th century.
Via Principalis Inferior was a major street of the city running from
the central basilica to the main town fountain, then to house of Partenius, the
'Palace of Theodosius' and the house of Psalms.
The House of Peristerius was a large living complex for several
families and also had rooms for shops. The Peristerius family owned the rooms in
the southern part of the complex. The central part of this complex is a yard
under open sky, with fountains on the western side. In the eastern part is an
excellent example of floor mosaics and in the middle there is a fountain made of
marble. The complex and the mosaics date from the late 4th or the early 5th
century. The Via Theodosia street is parallel to Via Axia and its located
between the house of Peristerius and the 'palace of Theodosius'.
The Palace of Theodosius was where the emperor Theodosius first stayed
while in Stobi. The floor is covered with marble blocks and the peristyle with
mosaics in the technique
opus
sectile. The other rooms are also decorated, dating from the 4th-5th
century.
The House of Partenius is located near the southern part of the Palace
of Theodosius, and is connected to it by a wall making it into an L-shaped
building standing for
Latin.
Valavica (Domus Fullonica) is a complex of connected shops and
residences, built on older objects. The name regards only one phase of building
in the small yard, whereas in the 5th century there was also a workshop for
painting and making carpets. The complex was in use from the 1st century to the
6th century.
The Episcopal Basilica, dating from the 5th and 6th centuries, with a
baptistery to the south. A peacock from the baptistery's mosaic floor is
depicted on the
reverse of the Macedonian 10
denars banknote, issued in 1996,[3]
and of the 10 denars coin, issued in 2008.
Caracalla (April
4, 188
–
April 8,
217.
Caracallus ), born Lucius Septimius Bassianus and later called Marcus
 Aurelius Antoninus and Marcus Aurelius Severus Antoninus, was the
eldest son of
Septimius Severus and
Roman
Emperor from 211 to 217.[1]
He was one of the most nefarious of Roman emperors.[2][3]
Caracalla's reign was notable for:
"Caracalla was the common enemy of all mankind," wrote
Edward Gibbon.[4]
He spent his reign traveling from province to province so that each could
experience his "rapine and cruelty."[4]
Rise to power
Caracalla, of mixed
Punic/Berber[5][6]
and Syrian
Arab descent,
[7][8][9]
was born Lucius Septimius Bassianus in
Lugdunum,
Gaul (now
Lyon,
France), the
son of the later Emperor Septimius Severus and
Julia
Domna. At the age of seven, his name was changed to Marcus Aurelius
Septimius Bassianus Antoninus to solidify connection to the family of
Marcus Aurelius. He was later given the
nickname
Caracalla, which referred to the Gallic hooded tunic he habitually wore
and which he made fashionable.
His father, who had taken the imperial throne in 193, died in 211 while
touring the northern marches at
Eboracum (York),
and Caracalla was proclaimed co-emperor with his brother
Publius Septimius Antoninius Geta. However since both of them wanted to be
the sole ruler, tensions between the brothers were evident in the few months
they ruled the empire together (they even considered dividing the empire in two,
but were persuaded not to do so by their mother). In December 211, Caracalla had
Geta, the family of his former father-in-law
Gaius Fulvius Plautianus, his wife
Fulvia Plautilla (also his paternal second cousin), and her brother
assassinated. He persecuted Geta's supporters and ordered a
damnatio memoriae by the Senate against his brother.
Reign
In 213 Caracalla went north to the German frontier to deal with the
Alamanni
who were causing trouble in the
Agri Decumates. The emperor managed to win the sympathy of the soldiers with
generous pay rises and popular gestures, like marching on foot among the
ordinary soldiers, eating the same food, and even grinding his own flour with
them.
Caracalla defeated the Alamanni in a battle near the river
Main, but failed to
win a decisive victory over them. After a peace agreement was brokered, the
senate conferred upon him the title "Germanicus Maximus". In the next year the
emperor traveled to the East.
When the inhabitants of
Alexandria heard Caracalla's claims that he had killed Geta in self-defense,
they produced a satire mocking this claim, as well as Caracalla's other
pretensions. Caracalla responded to this insult savagely in 215 by slaughtering
the deputation of leading citizens who had unsuspectingly assembled before the
city to greet his arrival, and then unleashed his troops for several days of
looting and plunder in Alexandria. According to historian Cassius Dio, over
20,000 people were killed.
During his reign as emperor, Caracalla raised the annual pay of an average
legionary to 675
denarii and lavished many benefits on the army which he both feared and
admired, as instructed by his father Septimius Severus who had told him to
always mind the soldiers and ignore everyone else.[10]
His official portraiture marked a break with the detached images of the
philosopher-emperors who preceded him: his close-cropped haircut is that of a
soldier, his pugnacious scowl a realistic and threatening presence. The rugged
soldier-emperor iconic type was adopted by several of the following emperors who
depended on the support of the legions, like
Trebonianus Gallus.[11]
Seeking to secure his own legacy, Caracalla also commissioned one of Rome's
last major architectural achievements, the
Baths of Caracalla, the largest public bath ever built in ancient Rome. The
main room of the baths was larger than
St. Peter's Basilica, and could easily accommodate over 2,000 Roman citizens
at one time. The bath house opened in 216, complete with private rooms and
outdoor tracks. Internally it was decorated with golden trim and mosaics.
The Roman Empire and its provinces in 210 AD
Fall
While travelling from
Edessa to begin a war with
Parthia, he
was assassinated while urinating at a roadside near
Harran on
April 8,
217 by Julius
Martialis, an officer in the imperial bodyguard.
Herodian
says that Martialis' brother had been executed a few days earlier by Caracalla
on an unproven charge; Cassius Dio, on the other hand, says that Martialis was
resentful at not being promoted to the rank of centurion. The escort of the
emperor gave him privacy to relieve himself, and Martialis ran forward and
killed Caracalla with a single sword stroke. He immediately fled on horseback,
but was killed by a bodyguard archer.[citation
needed]
Caracalla was succeeded by the Praetorian Prefect of the Guard,
Macrinus,
who almost certainly was part of the conspiracy against the emperor.[citation
needed]
His nickname
According to
Aurelius Victor in his Epitome de Caesaribus, the
cognomen "Caracalla"
refers to a Gallic
cloak that Caracalla adopted as a personal fashion, which spread to his army
and his court.[12]
Cassius Dio[13]
and the
Historia Augusta[14]
agree that his nickname derived from his cloak, but do not mention its country
of origin.
Legendary king of Britain
Geoffrey of Monmouth's legendary
History of the Kings of Britain makes Caracalla a king of Britain,
referring to him by his actual name "Bassianus", rather than the nickname
Caracalla. After Severus's death, the Romans wanted to make Geta king of
Britain, but the Britons preferred Bassianus because he had a British mother.
The two brothers fought a battle in which Geta was killed, and Bassianus
succeeded to the throne. He ruled until he was betrayed by his
Pictish allies
and overthrown by
Carausius,
who, according to Geoffrey, was a Briton, rather than the
Menapian Gaul
that he actually was.[15]
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