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ISLAMIC MAMLUKS (BAHRI) of
Egypt - Al-Nasir Muhammad - Sultan 1299-1340 A.D.
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Struck at the Damascus mint, 731 AH
Half dirham, silver, 12mm (0.6 grams)
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Al-Nasir Muhammad (Arabic :الناصر محمد)
(Epithet: al-Malik al-Nasir Nasir al-Din Muhammad ben
Qalawun)( Arabic: الملك الناصر ناصر الدين محمد بن
قلاوون) ( Nickname: Abu al-Ma'ali (أبو المعالى))
b. Cairo 1285, d. Cairo 1340) Was the ninth
Mamluk
sultan of
Egypt who was inaugurated three times, from December
1293 to December 1294 , from 1299 to 1309 and from 1309
till his death in 1341 .
Background
He was the youngest son of Sultan
Qalawun and the brother of Sultan
Al-Ashraf Khalil. He was born in Cairo at Qal'at al-Jabal
( Citadel of the Mountain )
[1]
[2]. His mother was of
Mongol origin. His reign was in three stages, marked
by temporary depositions.
1st
reign : 1293 - 1294
After the assassination of Al-Ashraf khalil in
December 1293, he was installed as Sultan with
Zayn-ad-Din Kitbugha as regent and vice-Sultan and
Emir Sanjar al-Shuja'i as
Vizier. Al-Nasir was only a nominal 9-year-old
Sultan. Kitbugha and al-Shuja'i were the actual rulers
of Egypt. The two
Emirs, Kitbugha who was of
Mongol origin and al-Shuja'i were rivals and had bad
relation with each other. al-Shujai with the support of
the Burji Mamluks planned to arrest Kitbugha and
assassinate his Emirs but Kitbugha sieged the Citadel
and the conflict ended by the murder of al-Shuja'i and
the removal of the Burjis from the Citadel.
1294, Al-Nassir exiled to Al Karak .
When Emir
Hossam ad-Din Lajin who fled after the murder of Al-Ashraf
Khalil showed up in Cairo, the Burji Mamluks who were
called al-Mamalik al-Ashrafiyah Khalil ( Mamluks of al-Ashraf
Khalil ) and who were removed from the Citadel by
Kitbugha, rebelled and went on rampage in Cairo as Lajin
was not arrested and punished for his involvement in the
murder of their benefactor Sultan al-Ashraf Khalil. The
Ashrafiyah were defeated and many of them were killed
and executed. Lajin convinced Kitbugha to depose Al-Nassir
Muhammed and install himself as Sultan after he warned
him that the Ashrafiyah and later Al-Nassir himself will
seek revenge for the murder of Khalil in which Kitbugha
also was involved. Kitbugha deposed Al-Nassir Muhammed
and installed himself Sultan with Lajin as his
vice-Sultan. Al-Nassir, who was by now 10-years-old, was
removed with his mother to another section in the palace
where they stayed until they were sent to
Al Karak ending the first reign of Al-Nassir
Muhammad. ( See
Al-Adil Kitbugha and
Lajin )
2nd
reign : 1299 - 1309
In 1296 Kitbugha was deposed by his vice-Sultan Lajin
and he fled to Syria and died in 1297 while holding the
post of the governor of
Hama. Lajin ruled as a sultan until he was murdered
with his vice-sultan Mangu-Temur in 1299 by a group of
Emirs led by Saif al-Din Kirji. After the murder of
Lajin and his vice-Sultan, the Emirs, including
al-Baibars al-Jashnakir , assembled and decided to
call Al-Nassir Muhammed from Al Kark and re-install him
as Sultan with Emir Taghji Vice-Sultan. But recall of
Al-Nassir was delayed for sometime as Emir Kirji, who
murdered Lajin, and the Ashrafiyah Emirs persisted that
Taghji should become the Sultan and Kirji be the
Vice-Sultan. At last, Al-Nassir was recalled and he
arrived with his mother in Cairo amid wide celebration
of its population. Al-Nassir, who was by now
14-years-old was re-installed with Seif ad-Din Salar who
was an Oirat Mongol
[3] as vice-Sultan and Baibars al-Jashnakir
who was a
Circassian as Ostadar
[4] . Al Nassir was, again, a nominal Sultan,
the actual rulers were Salar and Baibars al-Jashnakir.
The Burji Mamluks became more powerful during the
second reign of Al-Nassir Muhammed. They imposed taxes
on the persons who needed service or protection. This
official bribery was called " Himayah". The rivals of
the Burjis who were led by Baibars al-Jashnakir, were
the Salihiyya and the Mansuriyya Emirs led by Salar and
al-Ashrafiyy led by Emir Barlghi
[5] .
The
Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar
News reached Cairo that
Ghazan was preparing to attack the
Levant with a big army and about 30 Crusade ships
arrived to
Bairut. The Emirs decided to send forces from Egypt
to
Syria. While the Crusade ships were destroyed by
storm before the crusaders took ashore, Ghazan, after
arriving to Baghdad had to change his plan after one of
his commanders named Solamish Ben Afal fled to Egypt and
asked for help to fight him
[6] .
In 1299 Sultan Al-Nassir led the Egyptian Army to
Syria to encounter the army of Ghazan. While the Sultan
was on his way to Syria, some
Oirats conspired with a Mamluk of the Sultan to kill
Baibars al-Jashnakir and Salar in order to bring
Kitbugha who was in Hama back to power. The sultan's
Mamluk attacked Baibars al-Jashnakir and tried to kill
him but he was himself killed. The Oirats attacked the
Dihliz of the Sultan but they were stopped in a way that
made Salar and Baibars think the Sultan was involved in
the conspiracy. The Oirats were arrested and punished
and the Mamluks who were involved were sent to Al Kark
[7]
[8].
The army of Al-Nassir ( ca.20.000 ) clashed with
Ghazan army ( ca.100.000 ) in a battle that became known
as the
Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar. Al-Nassir's army was
defeated with relatively low causalities ( 200 to 1000
men )after inflicted high causalities on Ghazan's army (
ca.14000 men ) . Al-Nassir's forces retreated to
Homs followed by the army of Ghazan for some time
[9] . Al-Nassir left to Egypt and Ghazan took
Homs. The population of Damascus fled towards Egypt. The
leaders of Damascus appealed to Ghazan not to kill the
remaining population of the city
[10]. Ghazan arrived to the outskirts of
Damascus and his soldiers looted it. Damascus, with
exception of its citadel, submitted to the Mongol
commander Qubjuq and Ghazan name was mentioned during
the
Friday prayer at the mean
Mosque of Damascus as : " al-Sultan al-Azam Sultan
al-Islam wa al-Muslimin Muzafar al-Donya wa al-Din
Mahmud Ghazan "
[11] . The Mongols kept looting Syrian
villages, towns and Damascus itself.
In Egypt, the defeated soldiers of Al-Nasir kept
arriving in disorder. The deposed Sultan Kitbugha who
was in Syria also fled to Egypt. Cairo became
overcrowded as a huge number of Syrians refugees fled to
there
[12] . Al-Nasir Muhamed and the Emirs began to
prepare for a new march to the Levant. Money, horses and
arms were collected from all over Egypt. An attempt to
reuse an old
Fatwa which was issued during the reign of Sultan
Qutuz and which obliged each Egyptian to pay one
Dinar to support the army failed thus it was decided
that the people should pay by free will and not by law
[13]. But suddenly the news arrived to Cairo
that Ghazan left the Levant after he installed two of
his commanders as his deputes there. Sultan Al-Nasir
sent letters to Ghazan's deputes asking them to submit
to him and they agreed. Kitbugha was granted the post of
the governor of Hama and Salar and Baibars al-Jashnakir
travelled with an army to the Levant to liquidate the
remaining forces of Ghazan. The
Druze who looted Al-Nasir's soldiers during their
retreat to Egypt were attacked at their strongholds and
they were forced to give back the weapons and the
properties which they robbed from the retreating
soldiers
[14] . The submitted deputes arrived in Egypt
and were received by Al-Nasir Muhammed. The name of
Sultan Al-Nasir was mentioned again at the Syrian
Mosques. He was again the sovereign of the Levant.
In addition to Mongols threats in the Levant, the
second reign of Al-Nasir Muhammed witnessed also
disturbances inside Egypt itself. There were religious
riots in Cairo and rebellions in
Upper Egypt which were harshly suppressed
[15]. In 1301 parts of
Armenian Cilicia were looted and
Sis was attaked by Al-Nasir's forces led by his
Emirs as the Armenians tried to support Ghazan
[16] and in 1302 the Crusade island of
Arwad was assaulted and looted as the crusaders used
it as a base for attacks on Muslim ships
[17] . (See also
Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar)
The
Battle of Shaqhab
In 1303 Ghazan's army crossed the Euphrates river and
marched towards Syria. The Syrians fled from
Aleppo and Hama to Damascus. An Egyptian force led
by Baibars Al-Jashnakir arrived to Damascus. The
population of Damascus wanted to flee also but they were
warned that they would be killed and their money would
be seized if they tried do that
[18]. A force of Ghazan attacked
Turkmen villages and took women and children as
prisoners but the Sultan's forces led by his Emirs
clashed with the Mongols and freed about 6000 Turkmen
after they annihilated the Mongol force.
On April, 20, Al-Nasir Muhammed and the
Caliph
[19] arrived in Syria from Egypt and while the
Emirs were greeting them, news reached them that a
Mongol army of 50.000 soldiers led by Qutlugh-Shah, the
deputy of Ghazan, was approaching. Al-Nasir and the
Emirs decided to take the fight to Shaqhab. The Caliph
who stood beside the sultan at the heart of the army
exclaimed to the soldiers: " Warriors, do not worry
about your Sultan but worry about your women and the
religion of your Prophet "
[20] . A force of about 10.000 men led by
Qutlugh-Shah attacked the right flank of Al-Nasir's army
but unites of Baibars and Salar gave their support and
pushed Qutlugh-Shah back. There was a confusion on the
battleground as many thought that Al-Nasir's army was
defeated when they saw the Mongols passed the right
flank of Al-Nasir's army. Qutlugh-Shah withdrew to a
mountain believing also that he had won. But from his
position on the mountain he saw the army of Al-Nasir
standing firm on the left flank and the soldiers were
filling the field. Qutlugh-Shah who was puzzled asked an
Egyptian Emir who was taken prisoner about the army
which he was seeing. The Emir answered him that it is
the army of the Sultan of Egypt. Qutlugh-Shah was
shocked as he did not know that Al-Nasir has arrived
with the Egyptian army. When Qutlugh-Shah saw his army
defeated and fleeing he too fled at sunset
[21]. Next morning Qutlugh-Shah returned to
the battlefield but he was defeated again. His third
offensive happened early in the morning of the third day
but his army was utterly annihilated. Only a small
number of the Mongols survived. When Ghazan heard about
the defeat of his army he was so stressed that he
suffered a severe nose hemorrhage and he died a year
later
[22] . Al-Nasir Muhammed returned to Egypt
amid overwhelming festivity, Cairo, which was full of
people who came from all over Egypt to celebrate, was
decorated from
Bab al-Nasr (Victory Gate) to Qal'at al-Jabal
[23] The prominent Egyptian Mamluk historian
Baibars al-Dewadar
[24] was present at the Battle of Shaqhab
which is also called Battle of Marj al-Suffar. (See also
Battle of Shaqhab ).
Achievements
and withdrawal
In 1304 Sis was raided again by Al-Nasir's Emirs and
a group of Mongols led by a prominent commander named
Badr ad-Din Albaba were welcomed by Al-Nasir in Cairo.
Al-Madrasah Al-Nasiryah which had the gate of the
Cathedral of
Acre which Al-Ashraf khalil brought to Egypt in 1291
[25], was accomplished . 1304 witnessed also
the birth of Al-Nasir's son Ali
[26].
In 1309 Al-Nasir Muhammad felt fed up of being
dominated by Salar and Baibars al-Jashnakir. He informed
them that he is going to
Mecca for
pilgrimage but, instead, he went to Al Kark and
stayed there ending his second reign. But Al-Nasir
actually did not mean to resign. He knew he will not be
able to rule while Baibars al-Jashnakir and Salar were
there as he probably also was aware that sooner or later
they would depose him or even kill him and take the
power over. Al-Nasir tried to arrest Baibars and Salar
[27] but when he failed he calculated that by
being in Al Kark, faraway from their eyes, he would be
able to make new alliances with the Sultanate deputies
in the Levant who could offer him support against the
two Emirs when he return later to Egypt
[28]
[29] . When Al-Nasir refused to go back to
Egypt, Baibars al-Jashnakir installed himself as the
Sultan of Egypt with Salar as his vice-Sultan
[30] ( See
Baibars II ) .
3rd
reign : 1309 - 1341
Baibars al-Jashnakir ruled Egypt ten months and 24
days. His reign was marked by social unrest and threats
from the Mongols and the Crusaders. The population of
Egypt who hated him demanded the return of their beloved
Sultan Al-Nasir Muhammad. Baibars al-Jashnakir was
forced to step down and flee from the angry mob (see
Baibars II). Al-Nasir returned to Egypt. During his
first reign he was dominated by Kitbugha and al-Shuja'i
and during his second reign he was dominated by Baibars
al-Jashnakir and Salar. Al-Nasir, who was by now
24-years-old, was determined not to be dominated or
deprived from his Sultanic rights by any Emir. Al-Nasir
executed Baibars al-Jashnakir
[31] and accepted the resignation of Salar as
vice Sultan and replaced him with Baktmar al-Jukondar
then after a year he arrested him and he died shortly in
prison
[32] . The Mamluks and proprieties of both
Baibars and Salar were seized.
In 1310 the vice-Sultan Baktmar and Emir Bikhtas
conspired to overthrow Al-Nasir and replace him with
Emir Musa son of as-Salih Ali son of Qalawun. Musa
agreed but the conspiracy was revealed to Al-Nasir by an
Emir and both Bikhtas and Musa were arrested. The
vice-Sultan Baktmar al-Jukondar was arrested a year
later after being accused of plotting to overthrow Al-Nasir
and throne himself. Baibars al-Dewadar became the new
vice-Sultan
[33]
[34] . Because of his old experience with the
Emirs and their tricks, Al-Nasir Muhammad was a very
suspicious and sensitive Sultan who took attention of
every detail. He even exiled the Caliph himself to
Qus in 1338
[35] .
Crackdown
on corruption
Slowly but systematically Al-Nasir Muhammed grasped
his Sultanic power and took revenge on the Emirs who
were unfair to him in the past and on the Emirs who
plotted against him after his return to Egypt. He
abolished a few official positions, seized wealth's of
corrupted officials, discharged the Oirats Mongols from
royal services and annulled the exceptional taxes and
surcharges (Mikoos)
[36] which were imposed on the commons by the
authorities and enriched officials and made Emirs more
powerful. He employed Emir Ibn al-Waziri, a man who was
known to be tough on corruption, as the head of Dar al-Adl
( Court of Justice )
[37] and he himself used to sit there every
Monday to listen to complaints from the commons against
the officials and the Emirs. He prohibited his governors
from executing or physically punishing convicts without
his permission and he shut an infamous dungeon prison
that was near the citadel. In 1314 he abolished the post
of vice-Sultan. And in 1315 he made a land survey to
re-establish the amount of the taxes which the land
owners and the landlords had to pay to the state
[38].
Internal
and external situations
Cilician Armenia was devastated in 1266. Sis
was raided during Al-Nasir reign
During the third reign of Al-Nasir Muhammad Egypt did
not witness external threats as both the Crusadres and
the Mongols were enormously weakened by their frequent
defeats and their internal conflicts. However, Mongol
ruler
Oljeitu besieged Mamluk fortresses but left due to
deadly heat in 1312-1313. In 1314 the city of
Malatya was surmounted by Tunkuz the deputy of Al-Nasir
in the Levant
[39]. Sis and other places were raided by the
forces of Al-Nasir but no serious problems developed.
Inside Egypt, there were a few disorders in Upper Egypt
due to law breaking activities by Arabian tribesmen
which were easily subdued. However, in February 1321, a
rather serious uproar between Egyptian Muslim and
Christian communities developed after a few
Churches were suddenly destroyed simultaneously in
various parts of Egypt and was followed by series of
fires at Mosques and buildings in Cairo. A few
Christians were arrested while they were trying to set
fire at Mosques and buildings
[40]. Though the economy of Egypt flourished
during the third reign of Al-Nasir, his era was struck a
few times by financial problems and rise in prices
caused by the circulation of underweight and alloyed
coins. Al-Nasir minted a few thousands coins to fight
the spurious coins
[41].
Under Al-Nasir Muhammad the position of Egypt as a
political power also flourished. Foreign delegations and
king's envoys with gifts visited Cairo frequently
seeking the help and the friendship of Al-Nasir. Most
remarkable visits were from the envoys of
Pope
John XXII and
King Philip VI of France. The Papal envoys arrived
at Cairo in June 1327 with a gift and a letter from the
Pope who appealed to Al-Nasir to treat the Christians
well and to protect the Christian holy places and to
stop his attacks against Sis. Those were the first
envoys of a Pope to go to Egypt since the time of Sultan
as-Salih Ayyub.[42]
In February 1330, King Philip VI sent a delegation of
120 men who appealed to Al-Nasir to grant Philip the
city of
Jerusalem and areas on the
Levantine Coast. Al-Nasir reacted by insulting the
French envoys and their King and ordered them to
leave Egypt.[43]
Public
works
Al-Nasir Muhammad's long reign marked the apogee of
Mamluk power and the high-water mark of culture in Egypt
since
Ptolemaic
Alexandria . Extraordinary public works were set in
motion. He redug once again the canal connecting
Alexandria with the Nile: it was opened to traffic in
1311 and required workforces on a
Pharaonic scale. Some of his marvelous works in
Cairo were the huge square that was called al-Midan
al-Nasiri
[44] , Qasr al-Ablaq (al-Ablaq Palace) and the
restructuring of the
Iwan which was built by his father Qalawun
[45] . In addition, he built
Madrasas , magnificent public baths and renovated
more than thirty Mosques
[46] which belonged to the most splendid
examples of
Islamic architecture . His own Mosque in the Citadel
which stands until today was decorated with stone
brought in triumph from the ruined cathedral of
Acre. He also added to his father's complex of
structures Cairo's first sabeel, a fountain for
the use of all, especially welcome to the poor who might
not have access to a well.
Account
of Al-Malik Al-Nasir in Ibn Battuta's book
Ibn Battuta visited Egypt during the 3rd
reign of Al-Nasir Muhammad.
Ibn Battuta was a famous traveler and arrived in
Cairo while al-Malik al-Nasir was the Sultan. He related
the following:
The Sultan of Egypt at the time of my entry
was al-Malik al-Nasir Abu'l Fath Muahmmad, son
of al-Malik al-Mansur Saif al-Din Qala-un al-Salihi.
Qala'un was known as al-Alfi ['the
Thousand-man'] because al-Malik al-Salih bought
him for a thousand dinars of gold. He came
originally from Qifjaq [Kipchak]. Al-Malik al-Nasir
(God's mercy upon him) was a man of generous
character and great virtues, and sufficient
proof of his nobility is furnished by his
devotion to the service of the two holy
sanctuaries [of Mecca and Medina] and the works
of beneficence which he does every year to
assist the pilgrims, in furnishing camels loaded
with provisions and water for those without
means and the helpless, and for carrying those
who cannot keep up with the caravan or are too
weak to walk on foot, both on the Egyptian
pilgrim-road and on that from Damascus. He also
built a great convent at Siryaqus, in the
outskirts of Cairo.
Al-Nasir
Muhammad's Emblems and coins
Emblems : Eagle, Flower, lily, Bundel ( symbol of the
Jomdar who was an official of the department at the
Sultan's clothing ).
1st reign : Not available.
2nd reign : coins had Al-Nasir's name inscribed as
al-Sultan al-Malik al-Nasir Nasir al-Donya wa al-Din.
Also a title of his father Qalawun was inscribed on his
coins as : Al-Malik al-Mansur.
3rd reign : Al-Nasir Muhammad had on his coins the
following remarkable titles which are unique in Mamluk's
history : " al-Sultan al-Malik al-Nasir Nasir al-Din wa
al-Donia ( The Sultan King al-Nasir triumphant in faith
and temporal world ) " , " al-Sultan al-Malik al-Azam (
The Greatest Sultan King )", " al-Sultan al-Malik Nasir
al-Donya wa al-Din Qasim Amir al-Mu'amimin ( The Sultan
King triumphant in temporal world and in faith, the one
who shares with the Emir of faithfuls ( the Caliph ))".
Unique beseeching phrases that were inscribed on his
coins were : " Azz Nasroh ( May his victories be
glorified )" and " khalad Allah Mulkoh wa Sultanoh ( May
God makes his kingdom and his Sultanate eternal )"
[47] .
Legacy
The prominent Mamluk historian
Ibn Iyas wrote the following about Al-Nasir
Muhammad : " His name was mentioned everywhere like no
other king's name. All the kings wrote to him, sent
gifts to him and feared him. The whole of Egypt was in
his grasp "
Both father and brother of Al-Nasir were celebrated
Sultans and eight of his sons and four of his grandsons
were throned as Sultans of Egypt :
Sons ( Sultans of Egypt from 1341 to 1361 ) :
Grandsons ( Sultans of Egypt from 1363 to 1382 ) :
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