Nero - Roman Emperor: 54-68 A.D. -
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Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (15 December
AD 37–9 June AD 68),[1]
born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called Nero Claudius Caesar
Drusus Germanicus, was the fifth and last
Roman emperor of the
Julio-Claudian dynasty. Nero was adopted by his great uncle
Claudius to
become heir to the throne. As Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, he
succeeded to the throne on 13 October 54, following Claudius's death.
Nero ruled from 54 to 68, focusing much of his attention on
diplomacy, trade, and increasing the cultural capital of the empire. He ordered
the building of theaters and promoted athletic games. His reign included a
successful war and negotiated peace with the
Parthian Empire (58–63), the suppression of the
British revolt (60–61) and improving relations with Greece. The
First Roman-Jewish War (66–70) started during his reign. In 68 a military
coup drove Nero from the throne. Facing assassination, he committed suicide on 9
June 68.[2]
Nero's rule is often associated with tyranny and
extravagance.[3]
He is known for a number of executions, including those of his mother[4]
and step-brother, as the emperor who "fiddled while
Rome burned",[5]
and as an early persecutor of
Christians. This view is based upon the main surviving sources for Nero's
reign—Tacitus,
Suetonius
and
Cassius Dio. Few surviving sources paint Nero in a favorable light.[6]
Some sources, though, including those mentioned above, portray him as an emperor
who was popular with the common Roman people, especially in the East.[7]
The study of Nero is problematic as some modern historians question the
reliability of ancient sources when reporting on Nero's tyrannical acts.[8]
Early
life
Family
Nero was born with the name Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus on 15
December, AD 37, in
Antium, near Rome.[9][10]
He was the only son of 12, by
Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and second and third cousin
Agrippina the Younger, sister of emperor
Caligula.
Lucius' father was the grandson of
Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and
Aemilia Lepida through their son
Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus. Gnaeus was a grandson to
Mark
Antony and
Octavia Minor through their daughters
Antonia Major and
Antonia Minor, by each parent. With Octavia, he was the grandnephew of
Caesar Augustus. Nero's father had been employed as a
praetor and
was a member of Caligula's staff when the latter traveled to the East.[11]
Nero's father was described by Suetonius as a murderer and a cheat who was
charged by emperor
Tiberius
with treason, adultery, and incest.[11]
Tiberius died, allowing him to escape these charges.[11]
Nero's father died of
edema (or "dropsy") in 39 AD when Nero was three.[11]
Lucius' mother was Agrippina the Younger, who was
great-granddaughter to Caesar
Augustus
and his wife
Scribonia through their daughter
Julia the Elder and her husband
Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. Agrippina's father,
Germanicus,
was grandson to Augustus's wife,
Livia, on one
side and to
Mark
Antony and Octavia on the other. Germanicus' mother
Antonia Minor, was a daughter of Octavia Minor and Mark Antony. Octavia was
Augustus' second elder sister. Germanicus was also the adoptive son of
Tiberius. A
number of ancient historians accuse Agrippina of murdering her third husband,
emperor Claudius.[12]
-
See
Roman Emperors family tree.
Physical
appearance
In the book "The Lives of the Twelve Caesars" the Roman
historian
Suetonius describes Nero as "about the average height, his body marked with
spots and
malodorous, his hair light blond, his features regular rather than
attractive, his eyes blue and somewhat weak, his neck over thick, his belly
prominent, and his legs very slender."[13]
Rise
to power
Nero was not expected ever to become emperor because his
maternal uncle,
Caligula, had begun his reign at the age of 25 with ample time to produce
his own heir. Lucius' mother, Agrippina, lost favor with Caligula and was exiled
in 39 after her husband's death.[14]
Caligula seized Lucius's inheritance and sent him to be raised by his less
wealthy aunt,
Domitia Lepida.[10]
Caligula, his wife
Caesonia
and their infant daughter
Julia Drusilla were murdered in 41.[15]
These events led
Claudius,
Caligula's uncle, to become emperor.[16]
Claudius allowed Agrippina to return from exile.[10]
Claudius had married twice before marrying
Messalina.[17]
His previous marriages produced three children including a son, Drusus, who died
at a young age.[18]
He had two children with Messalina -
Claudia Octavia (b. 40) and
Britannicus (b. 41).[18]
Messalina was executed by Claudius in 48.[17]
In 49, Claudius married a fourth time, to Agrippina.[18]
To aid Claudius politically, Lucius was officially adopted in 50 and renamed
Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus (see
adoption in Rome).[19]
Nero was older than his stepbrother, Britannicus, and became heir to the throne.[20]
Nero was proclaimed an adult in 51 at the age of 14.[21]
He was appointed
proconsul,
entered and first addressed the
Senate,
made joint public appearances with Claudius, and was featured in coinage.[21]
In 53, he married his stepsister
Claudia Octavia.[22]
Emperor
Early
rule
Claudius
died in 54 and Nero was established as emperor. Though accounts vary greatly,
many ancient historians state
Agrippina poisoned Claudius.[12]
It is not known how much Nero knew or was involved in the death of Claudius.[23]
Nero became emperor at 16, the youngest emperor up until that
time.[24]
Ancient historians describe Nero's early reign as being strongly influenced by
his mother
Agrippina, his tutor
Lucius Annaeus Seneca, and the Praetorian Prefect
Sextus Afranius Burrus, especially in the first year.[25]
Other tutors were less often mentioned, such as
Alexander of Aegae.[26]
Very early in Nero's rule, problems arose from competition
for influence between Agrippina and Nero's two main advisers, Seneca and Burrus.
In 54, Agrippina tried to sit down next to Nero while he met
with an Armenian envoy, but Seneca stopped her and prevented a scandalous scene.[27]
Nero's personal friends also mistrusted Agrippina and told Nero to beware of his
mother.[28]
Nero was reportedly unsatisfied with his marriage to
Octavia and entered an affair with
Claudia
Acte, a former slave.[29]
In 55, Agrippina attempted to intervene in favor of Octavia and demanded that
her son dismiss Acte. Nero, with the support of Seneca, resisted the
intervention of his mother in his personal affairs.[30]
With Agrippina's influence over her son severed, she
reportedly began pushing for Britannicus, Nero's stepbrother, to become emperor.[30]
Nearly fifteen-year-old Britannicus, heir-designate prior to Nero's adoption,
was still legally a minor, but was approaching legal adulthood.[31]
According to Tacitus, Agrippina hoped that with her support, Britannicus, being
the blood son of Claudius, would be seen as the true heir to the throne by the
state over Nero.[31]
However, the youth died suddenly and suspiciously on 12 February, 55, the very
day before his proclamation as an adult had been set.[32]
Nero claimed that Britannicus died from an epileptic seizure, but ancient
historians all claim Britannicus' death came from Nero's poisoning him.[33]
After the death of Britannicus, Agrippina was accused of slandering Octavia and
Nero ordered her out of the imperial residence.[34]
Matricide
and consolidation of power
Over time, Nero became progressively more powerful, freeing
himself of his advisers and eliminating rivals to the throne. In 55, he removed
Marcus Antonius Pallas, an ally of Agrippina, from his position in the
treasury.[30]
Pallas, along with
Burrus, was accused of conspiring against the emperor to bring
Faustus Sulla to the throne.[35]
Seneca was accused of having relations with Agrippina and embezzlement.[36]
Seneca was successfully able to have himself, Pallas and Burrus acquitted.[36]
According to
Cassius
Dio, at this time, Seneca and Burrus reduced their role in governing from
careful management to mere moderation of Nero.[37]
In 58, Nero became romantically involved with
Poppaea Sabina, the wife of his friend and future emperor
Otho.[38]
Reportedly because a marriage to Poppaea and a divorce from Octavia did not seem
politically feasible with Agrippina alive, Nero ordered the murder of his mother
in 59.[39]
A number of modern historians find this an unlikely motive as Nero did not marry
Poppaea until 62.[40]
Additionally, according to
Suetonius,
Poppaea did not divorce her husband until after Agrippina's death, making it
unlikely that the already married Poppaea would be pressing Nero for marriage.[41]
Some modern historians theorize that Nero's execution of Agrippina was prompted
by her plotting to set
Rubellius Plautus on the throne.[42]
According to
Suetonius, Nero tried to kill his mother through a planned shipwreck, but
when she survived, he had her executed and framed it as a suicide.[43]
The incident is also recorded by Tacitus.[44]
In 62 Nero's adviser,
Burrus, died.[45]
Additionally, Seneca was again faced with embezzlement charges.[46]
Seneca asked Nero for permission to retire from public affairs.[47]
Nero divorced and banished
Octavia on grounds of infertility, leaving him free to marry the pregnant
Poppaea.[48]
After public protests, Nero was forced to allow Octavia to return from exile,[48]
but she was executed shortly after her return.[49]
Nero also was reported to have kicked Poppaea to death in 65 before she could
have his second child.[50]
However, modern historians, noting Suetonius, Tacitus and Cassius Dio's possible
bias against Nero and the likelihood that they did not have eyewitness accounts
of private events, postulate that Poppaea may have died because of complications
of miscarriage or childbirth.[51]
Accusations of treason being plotted against Nero and the
Senate first appeared in 62.[52]
The Senate ruled that Antistius, a praetor, should be put to death for speaking
ill of Nero at a party. Later, Nero ordered the exile of Fabricius Veiento who
slandered the Senate in a book.[53]
Tacitus writes that the roots of the conspiracy led by
Gaius Calpurnius Piso began in this year. To consolidate power, Nero
executed a number of people in 62 and 63 including his rivals
Pallas,
Rubellius Plautus and
Faustus Sulla.[54]
According to Suetonius, Nero "showed neither discrimination nor moderation in
putting to death whomsoever he pleased" during this period.[55]
Nero's consolidation of power also included a slow usurping
of authority from the Senate. In 54, Nero promised to give the Senate powers
equivalent to those under Republican rule.[56]
By 65, senators complained that they had no power left and this led to the
Pisonian conspiracy.[57]
Administrative
policies
Over the course of his reign, Nero often made rulings that
pleased the lower class. Nero was criticised as being obsessed with being
popular.[58]
Nero began his reign in 54 by promising the Senate more
autonomy.[56]
In this first year, he forbade others to refer to him with regard to enactments,
for which he was praised by the Senate.[59]
Nero was known for spending his time visiting brothels and taverns during this
period.[59]
In 55, Nero began taking on a more active role as an
administrator. He was
consul
four times between 55 and 60. During this period, some ancient historians speak
fairly well of Nero and contrast it with his later rule.[60]
Under Nero, restrictions were put on the amount of bail and
fines.[61]
Also, fees for lawyers were limited.[62]
There was a discussion in the Senate on the misconduct of the freedmen class,
and a strong demand was made that patrons should have the right of revoking
freedom.[63]
Nero supported the freedmen and ruled that patrons had no such right.[64]
The Senate tried to pass a law in which the crimes of one slave applied to all
slaves within a household. Nero vetoed the measure.[65]
After tax collectors were accused of being too harsh to the poor, Nero
transferred collection authority to lower commissioners.[61]
Nero banned any magistrate or procurator from exhibiting public entertainment
for fear that the venue was being used as a method to sway the populace.[66]
Additionally, there were many impeachments and removals of government officials
along with arrests for extortion and corruption.[67]
When further complaints arose that the poor were being overly taxed, Nero
attempted to repeal all indirect taxes.[68]
The Senate convinced him this action would bankrupt the public treasury.[68]
As a compromise, taxes were cut from 4.5% to 2.5%.[69]
Additionally, secret government tax records were ordered to become public.[69]
To lower the cost of food imports, merchant ships were declared tax-exempt.[69]
In imitation of the Greeks, Nero built a number of gymnasiums
and theatres.[70]
Enormous gladiatorial shows were also held.[71]
Nero also established the
quinquennial Neronia.[70][71]
The festival included games, poetry and theater. Historians indicate that there
was a belief that theatre led to immorality.[70]
Others considered that to have performers dressed in Greek clothing was old
fashioned.[72]
Some questioned the large public expenditure on entertainment.[72]
In 64,
Rome burned.[73]
Nero enacted a public relief effort[73]
as well as significant reconstruction.[74]
A number of other major construction projects occurred in Nero's late reign.
Nero had the marshes of Ostia filled with rubble from the fire. He erected the
large
Domus Aurea.[75]
In 67, Nero attempted to have a canal dug at the
Isthmus of Corinth.[76]
Ancient historians state that these projects and others exacerbated the drain on
the State's budget.[77]
The economic policy of Nero is a point of debate among
scholars. According to ancient historians, Nero's construction projects were
overly extravagant and the large number of expenditures under Nero left Italy
"thoroughly exhausted by contributions of money" with "the provinces ruined."[78][79]
Modern historians, though, note that the period was riddled with deflation and
that it is likely that Nero's spending came in the form of public works projects
and charity intended to ease economic troubles.[80]
Great
Fire of Rome
The Great Fire of Rome erupted on the night of 18 July to 19
July, AD 64. The fire started at the southeastern end of the Circus Maximus in
shops selling flammable goods.[81]
The extent of the fire is uncertain. According to
Tacitus, who
was nine at the time of the fire, it spread quickly and burned for over five
days.[82]
It completely destroyed four of fourteen Roman districts and severely damaged
seven.[82]
The only other historian who lived through the period and mentioned the fire is
Pliny the Elder, who wrote about it in passing.[83]
Other historians who lived through the period (including
Josephus,
Dio
Chrysostom,
Plutarch, and
Epictetus)
make no mention of it.
It is uncertain who or what actually caused the fire —
whether accident or
arson.[81]
Suetonius
and
Cassius Dio favor Nero as the
arsonist, so he
could build a palatial complex.[84]
Tacitus mentions that Christians confessed to the crime, but it is not known
whether these confessions were induced by torture.[85]
However, fires started accidentally were common in ancient Rome.[86]
In fact, Rome suffered another large fire in 69[87]
and in 80.[88]
It was said by Suetonius and Cassius Dio that Nero sang the "Sack
of Ilium" in stage costume while the city burned.[89]
Popular legend claims that Nero played the
fiddle at the
time of the fire, an anachronism based merely on the concept of the
lyre, a stringed
instrument associated with Nero and his performances. (There were no fiddles in
1st-century Rome.) Tacitus's account, however, has Nero in
Antium at the time of the fire.[90]
Tacitus also said that Nero playing his lyre and singing while the city burned
was only rumor.[90]
According to Tacitus, upon hearing news of the fire, Nero
returned back to Rome to organize a relief effort, which he paid for from his
own funds.[90]
After the fire, Nero opened his palaces to provide shelter for the homeless, and
arranged for food supplies to be delivered in order to prevent starvation among
the survivors.[90]
In the wake of the fire, he made a new urban development plan. Houses after the
fire were spaced out, built in brick, and faced by porticos on wide roads.[74]
Nero also built a new palace complex known as the
Domus
Aurea in an area cleared by the fire. This included lush artificial
landscapes and a 30 meter statue of himself, the
Colossus of Nero.[75]
The size of this complex is debated (from 100 to 300 acres).[91][92][93]
To find the necessary funds for the reconstruction, tributes were imposed on the
provinces of the empire.[94]
According to Tacitus, the population searched for a scapegoat
and rumors held Nero responsible.[85]
To deflect blame, Nero targeted Christians. He ordered Christians to be thrown
to dogs, while others were crucified and burned.[85]
Tacitus described the event:
“ |
Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened
the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for
their abominations, called Christians [or Chrestians[95]]
by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered
the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of
our procurators, Pontius Pilatus, and a most mischievous superstition,
thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judaea, the
first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where all things hideous and
shameful from every part of the world find their centre and become
popular. Accordingly, an arrest was first made of all who pleaded
guilty; then, upon their information, an immense multitude was
convicted, not so much of the crime of firing the city, as of hatred
against mankind. Mockery of every sort was added to their deaths.
Covered with the skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and perished,
or were nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames and burnt, to
serve as a nightly illumination, when daylight had expired.[85] |
” |
Public
performances
Nero enjoyed driving a one-horse chariot, singing to the harp
and poetry.[96]
He even composed songs that were performed by other entertainers throughout the
empire.[97]
At first, Nero only performed for a private audience.[98]
In 64, Nero began singing in public in
Neapolis in
order to improve his popularity.[98]
He also sang at the second
quinquennial Neronia in 65.[99]
It was said that Nero craved the attention,[100]
but historians also write that Nero was encouraged to sing and perform in public
by the Senate, his inner circle and the people.[101]
Ancient historians strongly criticize his choice to perform, calling it
shameful.[102]
Nero was convinced to participate in the
Olympic Games of 67 in order to improve relations with Greece and display
Roman dominance.[103]
As a competitor, Nero raced a ten-horse chariot and nearly died after being
thrown from it.[104]
He also performed as an actor and a singer.[105]
Though Nero faltered in his racing (in one case, dropping out entirely before
the end) and acting competitions,[104]
he won these crowns nevertheless and paraded them when he returned to Rome.[104]
The victories are attributed to Nero bribing the judges and his status as
emperor.[106]
War
and peace with Parthia
Shortly after Nero's accession to the throne in 55, the Roman
vassal
kingdom of Armenia overthrew their prince
Rhadamistus and he was replaced with the
Parthian
prince
Tiridates.[107]
This was seen as a Parthian invasion of Roman territory.[107]
There was concern in Rome over how the young emperor would handle the situation.[108]
Nero reacted by immediately sending the military to the region under the command
of
Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo.[109]
The Parthians temporarily relinquished control of Armenia to Rome.[110]
The peace did not last and full-scale war broke out in 58.
The Parthian king
Vologases I refused to remove his brother Tiridates from Armenia.[111]
The Parthians began a full-scale invasion of the Armenian kingdom.[38]
Commander Corbulo responded and repelled most of the Parthian army that same
year.[112]
Tiridates retreated and Rome again controlled most of Armenia.[112]
Nero was acclaimed in public for this initial victory.[113]
Tigranes, a Cappadocian noble raised in Rome, was installed by Nero as the
new ruler of Armenia.[114]
Corbulo was appointed governor of Syria as a reward.[114]
In 62, Tigranes invaded the Parthian province of
Adiabene.[115]
Again, Rome and Parthia were at war and this continued until 63. Parthia began
building up for a strike against the Roman province of Syria.[116]
Corbulo tried to convince Nero to continue the war, but Nero opted for a peace
deal instead.[117]
There was anxiety in Rome about eastern grain supplies and a budget deficit.[118]
The result was a deal where Tiridates again became the
Armenian king, but was crowned in Rome by emperor Nero.[119]
In the future, the
king of Armenia was to be a Parthian prince, but his appointment required
approval from the Romans. Tiridates was forced to come to Rome and partake in
ceremonies meant to display Roman dominance.[73][120]
This peace deal of 63 was a considerable victory for Nero
politically.[121]
Nero became very popular in the eastern provinces of Rome and with the Parthians
as well.[121]
The peace between Parthia and Rome lasted 50 years until emperor
Trajan of Rome
invaded Armenia in 114.
Other
major power struggles and rebellions
The war with Parthia was not Nero's only major war but he was
both criticized and praised for an aversion to battle.[122]
Like many emperors, Nero faced a number of rebellions and power struggles within
the empire.
- British Revolt of 60–61 (Boudica's Uprising)
In 60, a major rebellion broke out in the province of
Britannia.[123]
While the governor
Gaius Suetonius Paullinus and his troops were busy capturing the island of
Mona (Anglesey)
from the druids, the tribes of the south-east staged a revolt led by queen
Boudica of
the Iceni.[124]
Boudica and her troops destroyed three cities before the army of Paullinus was
able to return, be reinforced and put down the rebellion in 61.[125]
Fearing Paullinus himself would provoke further rebellion, Nero replaced him
with the more passive
Publius Petronius Turpilianus.[126]
- The Pisonian Conspiracy of 65
In 65,
Gaius Calpurnius Piso, a Roman statesman, organized a conspiracy against
Nero with the help of Subrius Flavus and Sulpicius Asper, a tribune and a
centurion of the Praetorian Guard.[127]
According to Tacitus, many conspirators wished to "rescue the state" from the
emperor and restore the
Republic.[128]
The freedman Milichus discovered the conspiracy and reported it to Nero's
secretary,
Epaphroditos.[129]
As a result, the conspiracy failed and its members were executed including
Lucan, the poet.[130]
Nero's previous advisor,
Seneca was ordered to commit suicide after admitting he discussed the plot
with the conspirators.[131]
- The First Jewish War of 66–70
In 66, there was a
Jewish revolt in Judea stemming from Greek and Jewish religious tension.[132]
In 67, Nero dispatched
Vespasian
to restore order.[133]
This revolt was eventually put down in 70, after Nero's death.[134]
This revolt is famous for Romans breaching the walls of Jerusalem and destroying
the Second
Temple of Jerusalem.[135]
The
Revolt of Vindex and Galba and the death of Nero
In March 68,
Gaius Julius Vindex,
the governor of
Gallia Lugdunensis, rebelled against Nero's tax policies.[136][137]
Lucius Verginius Rufus, the governor of
Germania Superior, was ordered to put down Vindex's rebellion.[138]
In an attempt to gain support from outside his own province, Vindex called upon
Servius Sulpicius
Galba, the governor of
Hispania Tarraconensis, to join the rebellion and further, to declare
himself emperor in opposition to Nero.[139]
At the
Battle of Vesontio in May 68, Verginius' forces easily defeated those of
Vindex and the latter committed suicide.[138]
However after putting down this one rebel, Verginius' legions attempted to
proclaim their own commander as emperor. Verginius refused to act against Nero,
but the discontent of the legions of Germany and the continued opposition of
Galba in Spain did not bode well for Nero.
While Nero had retained some control of the situation,
support for Galba increased despite his being officially declared a public
enemy. The prefect of the
Praetorian Guard,
Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus, also abandoned his allegiance to the emperor and
came out in support for Galba.
In response, Nero fled Rome with the intention of going to
the port of Ostia
and from there to take a fleet to one of the still-loyal eastern provinces.
However he abandoned the idea when some army officers openly refused to obey his
commands, responding with a line from
Vergil's
Aeneid: "Is it so dreadful a thing than to die?" Nero then toyed with
the idea of fleeing to
Parthia,
throwing himself upon the mercy of Galba, or to appeal to the people and beg
them to pardon him for his past offences "and if he could not soften their
hearts, to entreat them at least to allow him the prefecture of Egypt".
Suetonius reports that the text of this speech was later found in Nero's writing
desk, but that he dared not give it from fear of being torn to pieces before he
could reach the Forum.[140]
Nero returned to Rome and spent the evening in the palace.
After sleeping, he awoke at about midnight to find the palace guard had left.
Dispatching messages to his friends' palace chambers for them to come, none
replied. Upon going to their chambers personally, all were abandoned. Upon
calling for a gladiator or anyone else adept with a sword to kill him, no one
appeared. He cried "Have I neither friend nor foe?" and ran out as if to throw
himself into the
Tiber.[141]
Returning again, Nero sought for some place where he could
hide and collect his thoughts. An imperial freedman offered his villa, located 4
miles outside the city. Travelling in disguise, Nero and four loyal servants
reached the villa, where Nero ordered them to dig a grave for him. As it was
being prepared, he said again and again "What an artist dies in me!".[142]
At this time a courier arrived with a report that the Senate had declared Nero a
public enemy and that it was their intention to execute him by beating him to
death. At this news Nero prepared himself for
suicide. Losing his nerve, he first begged for one of his companions to set
an example by first killing himself. At last, the sound of approaching horsemen
drove Nero to face the end. After quoting a line from
Homer's
Iliad ("Hark,
now strikes on my ear the trampling of swift-footed coursers!") Nero drove a
dagger into his throat. In this he was aided by his private secretary,
Epaphroditos. When one of the horsemen entered, upon his seeing Nero all but
dead he attempted to stanch the bleeding. With the words "Too late! This is
fidelity!", Nero died on 9 June 68.[143]
This was the anniversary of the death of Octavia. Nero was buried in the
Mausoleum of the Domitii Ahenobarbi, in what is now the
Villa Borghese (Pincian
Hill) area of Rome.[144]
With his death, the
Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued in the
Year of the Four Emperors.[87]
After
death
According to Suetonius and Cassius Dio, the people of Rome
celebrated the death of Nero.[145][146]
Tacitus, though, describes a more complicated political environment. Tacitus
mentions that Nero's death was welcomed by Senators, nobility and the
upper-class.[147]
The lower-class, slaves, frequenters of the arena and the theater, and "those
who were supported by the famous excesses of Nero", on the other hand, were
upset with the news.[147]
Members of the military were said to have mixed feelings, as they had allegiance
to Nero, but were bribed to overthrow him.[148]
Eastern sources, namely Philostratus II and
Apollonius of Tyana, mention that Nero's death was mourned as he "restored
the liberties of
Hellas
with a wisdom and moderation quite alien to his character"[149]
and that he "held our liberties in his hand and respected them."[150]
Modern scholarship generally holds that, while the Senate and
more well-off individuals welcomed Nero's death, the general populace was "loyal
to the end and beyond, for Otho and Vitellius both thought it worthwhile to
appeal to their nostalgia."[151]
Nero's name was erased from some monuments, in what Edward
Champlin regards as "outburst of private zeal".[152]
Many portraits of Nero were reworked to represent other figures; according to
Eric R. Varner, over fifty such images survive.[153]
This reworking of images is often explained as part of the way in which the
memory of disgraced emperors was condemned posthumously (see
damnatio memoriae).[153]
Champlin, however, doubts that the practice is necessarily negative and notes
that some continued to create images of Nero long after his death.[154]
The legend of Nero's return lasted for hundreds of years
after Nero's death.
Augustine of Hippo wrote of the legend as a popular belief in 422[155]
The civil war during the
Year of the Four Emperors was described by ancient historians as a troubling
period.[87]
According to Tacitus, this instability was rooted in the fact that emperors
could no longer rely on the perceived legitimacy of the imperial bloodline, as
Nero and those before him could.[147]
Galba began his
short reign with the execution of many allies of Nero and possible future
enemies.[156]
One notable enemy included
Nymphidius Sabinus, who claimed to be the son of emperor
Caligula.[157]
Otho
overthrew Galba. Otho was said to be liked by many soldiers because he had been
a friend of Nero's and resembled him somewhat in temperament.[158]
It was said that the common Roman hailed Otho as Nero himself.[159]
Otho used "Nero" as a surname and reerected many statues to Nero.[159]
Vitellius
overthrew Otho. Vitellius began his reign with a large funeral for Nero complete
with songs written by Nero.[160]
After Nero's suicide in 68, there was a widespread belief,
especially in the eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would
return.[161]
This belief came to be known as the
Nero Redivivus Legend.
At least
three Nero imposters emerged leading rebellions. The first, who sang and
played the cithara or lyre and whose face was similar to that of the dead
emperor, appeared in 69 during the reign of Vitellius.[162]
After persuading some to recognize him, he was captured and executed.[162]
Sometime during the reign of
Titus (79-81)
there was another impostor who appeared in Asia and also sang to the
accompaniment of the lyre and looked like Nero but he, too, was killed.[163]
Twenty years after Nero's death, during the reign of
Domitian,
there was a third pretender. Supported by the Parthians, they hardly could be
persuaded to give him up[164]
and the matter almost came to war.[87]
Historiography
The history of Nero’s reign is problematic in that no
historical sources survived that were contemporary with Nero. These first
histories at one time did exist and were described as biased and fantastical,
either overly critical or praising of Nero.[165]
The original sources were also said to contradict on a number of events.[166]
Nonetheless, these lost primary sources were the basis of surviving secondary
and tertiary histories on Nero written by the next generations of historians.[167]
A few of the contemporary historians are known by name.
Fabius Rusticus,
Cluvius Rufus and
Pliny the Elder all wrote condemning histories on Nero that are now lost.[168]
There were also pro-Nero histories, but it is unknown who wrote them or on what
deeds Nero was praised.[169]
The bulk of what is known of Nero comes from
Tacitus,
Suetonius
and
Cassius Dio, who were all of the Patrician class. Tacitus and Suetonius
wrote their histories on Nero over fifty years after his death, while Cassius
Dio wrote his history over 150 years after Nero’s death. These sources
contradict on a number of events in Nero’s life including the death of
Claudius,
the death of
Agrippina and the Roman fire of 64, but they are consistent in their
condemnation of Nero.
A handful of other sources also add a limited and varying
perspective on Nero. Few surviving sources paint Nero in a favorable light. Some
sources, though, portray him as a competent emperor who was popular with the
Roman people, especially in the east[citation
needed].
- Cassius Dio
Cassius
Dio (c. 155- 229) was the son of
Cassius Apronianus, a Roman senator. He passed the greater part of his life
in public service. He was a senator under
Commodus
and governor of Smyrna after the death of
Septimius Severus; and afterwards suffect consul around 205, as also
proconsul in Africa and Pannonia.
Books 61–63 of Dio's Roman History describe the reign
of Nero. Only fragments of these books remain and what does remain was abridged
and altered by
John Xiphilinus, an 11th century monk.
- Dio Chrysostom
Dio
Chrysostom (c. 40– 120), a Greek philosopher and historian, wrote the
Roman people were very happy with Nero and would have allowed him to rule
indefinitely. They longed for his rule once he was gone and embraced imposters
when they appeared:
“ |
Indeed the truth about this has not come out even
yet; for so far as the rest of his subjects were concerned, there was
nothing to prevent his continuing to be Emperor for all time, seeing
that even now everybody wishes he were still alive. And the great
majority do believe that he still is, although in a certain sense he has
died not once but often along with those who had been firmly convinced
that he was still alive.[170] |
” |
- Epictetus
Epictetus
(c. 55- 135) was the slave to Nero's scribe
Epaphroditos. He makes a few passing negative comments on Nero's character
in his work, but makes no remarks on the nature of his rule. He describes Nero
as a spoiled, angry and unhappy man.
- Josephus
The historian
Josephus (c.
37- 100), while calling Nero a tyrant, was also the first to mention bias
against Nero. Of other historians, he said:
“ |
But I omit any further discourse about these affairs;
for there have been a great many who have composed the history of Nero;
some of which have departed from the truth of facts out of favor, as
having received benefits from him; while others, out of hatred to him,
and the great ill-will which they bare him, have so impudently raved
against him with their lies, that they justly deserve to be condemned.
Nor do I wonder at such as have told lies of Nero, since they have not
in their writings preserved the truth of history as to those facts that
were earlier than his time, even when the actors could have no way
incurred their hatred, since those writers lived a long time after them.[171] |
” |
- Lucan
Though more of a poet than historian,
Lucanus (c. 39- 65) has one of the kindest accounts of Nero's rule.
He writes of peace and prosperity under Nero in contrast to previous war and
strife. Ironically, he was later involved in a conspiracy to overthrow Nero and
was executed.[172]
- Philostratus
Philostratus II "the Athenian" (c. 172- 250) spoke of Nero in the
Life of Apollonius Tyana (Books 4–5). Though he has a generally a bad or dim
view of Nero, he speaks of others' positive reception of Nero in the East.
- Pliny the Elder
The history of Nero by
Pliny the Elder (c. 24- 79) did not survive. Still, there are several
references to Nero in Pliny's Natural Histories. Pliny has one of the
worst opinions of Nero and calls him an "enemy of mankind."[173]
- Plutarch
Plutarch (c.
46- 127) mentions Nero indirectly in his account of the Life of Galba and the
Life of Otho. Nero is portrayed as a tyrant, but those that replace him are not
described as better.
- Seneca the Younger
It is not surprising that
Seneca (c. 4 BC- 65), Nero's teacher and advisor, writes very well of
Nero.[174]
- Suetonius
Suetonius
(c. 69- 130) was a member of the equestrian order, and he was the head of
the department of the imperial correspondence. While in this position, Suetonius
started writing biographies of the emperors, accentuating the anecdotal and
sensational aspects.
- Tacitus
The Annals by
Tacitus (c.
56- 117) is the most detailed and comprehensive history on the rule of Nero,
despite being incomplete after the year 66. Tacitus described the rule of the
Julio-Claudian emperors as generally unjust. He also thought that existing
writing on them was unbalanced:
“ |
The histories of Tiberius, Caius, Claudius, and Nero,
while they were in power, were falsified through terror, and after their
death were written under the irritation of a recent hatred.[175] |
” |
Tacitus was the son of a
procurator, who married into the elite family of Agricola. He entered his
political life as a senator after Nero's death and, by Tacitus' own admission,
owed much to Nero's rivals. Realizing that this bias may be apparent to others,
Tacitus protests that his writing is true.[176]
Nero
and religion
Jewish
tradition
At the end of 66, conflict broke out between Greeks and Jews
in Jerusalem and Caesarea. According to a Jewish tradition in the
Talmud (tractate
Gitin 56a-b), Nero went to Jerusalem and shot arrows in all four directions.
All the arrows landed in the city. He then asked a passing child to repeat the
verse he had learned that day. The child responded "I will lay my vengeance upon
Edom by the hand of my people Israel" (Ez.
25,14). Nero became terrified, believing that God wanted the
Temple in Jerusalem to be destroyed, but would punish the one to carry it
out. Nero said, "He desires to lay waste His House and to lay the blame on me,"
whereupon he fled and converted to Judaism to avoid such retribution.
Vespasian
was then dispatched to put down the rebellion. The Talmud adds that the sage
Reb Meir Baal HaNess, a prominent supporter of the
Bar Kokhba
rebellion against Roman rule, was a descendant of Nero. Roman sources
nowhere report Nero's alleged conversion to Judaism, a religion considered by
the Romans as extremely barbaric and immoral.[177]
It seems unlikely that such sources - almost universally hostile towards the
emperor - would have passed up the opportunity to denigrate Nero even further by
mentioning this alleged conversion. Neither is there any record of Nero having
any offspring who survived infancy: his only recorded child,
Claudia Augusta, died aged 4 months. The legend recorded in the Talmud thus
cannot be relied upon as a historical source for facts on Nero's life.
Christian
tradition
Early
Christian
tradition often holds Nero as the first persecutor of Christians and as the
killer of
Apostles
Peter
and
Paul. There was also a belief among some early Christians that Nero was the
Antichrist.
- First Persecutor
The non-Christian historian
Tacitus
describes Nero extensively torturing and executing Christians after the fire of
64.[85]
Suetonius
also mentions Nero punishing Christians, though he does so as a praise and does
not connect it with the fire.[178]
The Christian writer
Tertullian
(c. 155- 230) was the first to call Nero the first persecutor of
Christians. He wrote "Examine your records. There you will find that Nero was
the first that persecuted this doctrine".[179]
Lactantius
(c. 240- 320) also said Nero "first persecuted the servants of God".[180]
as does
Sulpicius Severus.[181]
However, Suetonius gives that "since the Jews constantly made disturbances at
the instigation of Chrestus, he [the emperor
Claudius]
expelled them from Rome" ("Iudaeos impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantis
Roma expulit").[182]
These expelled "Jews" may have been early Christians, although Suetonius is not
explicit. Nor is the Bible explicit, calling Aquila of Pontus and his wife,
Priscilla, both expelled from Italy at the time, "Jews."[183]
- Killer of Peter and Paul
The first text to suggest that Nero killed an apostle is the
apocryphal
Ascension of Isaiah, a Christian writing from the 2nd century. It says
the slayer of his mother, who himself this king, will persecute the plant
which the Twelve Apostles of the Beloved have planted. Of the Twelve one will be
delivered into his hands.[184]
The
Bishop
Eusebius of
Caesarea (c. 275- 339) was the first to write that Paul was beheaded
in Rome during the reign of Nero.[185]
He states that Nero's persecution led to Peter and Paul's deaths, but that Nero
did not give any specific orders. Several other accounts have Paul surviving his
two years in Rome and traveling to
Hispania.[186]
Peter is first said to have been crucified upside down in
Rome during Nero's reign (but not by Nero) in the
apocryphal
Acts
of Peter (c. 200).[187]
The account ends with Paul still alive and Nero abiding by God's command not to
persecute any more Christians.
By the 4th century, a number of writers were stating that
Nero killed Peter and Paul.[188]
- The Antichrist
The
Ascension of Isaiah is the first text to suggest that Nero was the
Antichrist.
It claims a lawless king, the slayer of his mother,...will come and there
will come with him all the powers of this world, and they will hearken unto him
in all that he desires.[184]
The
Sibylline Oracles, Book 5 and 8, written in the 2nd century, speaks of Nero
returning and bringing destruction.[189]
Within Christian communities, these writings, along with others,[190]
fueled the belief that Nero would return as the Antichrist. In 310,
Lactantius
wrote that Nero suddenly disappeared, and even the burial-place of that
noxious wild beast was nowhere to be seen. This has led some persons of
extravagant imagination to suppose that, having been conveyed to a distant
region, he is still reserved alive; and to him they apply the Sibylline verses.[180]
In 422,
Augustine of Hippo wrote about 2 Thessalonians 2:1–11, where he believed
Paul mentioned the coming of the Antichrist. Though he rejects the theory,
Augustine mentions that many Christians believed that Nero was the Antichrist or
would return as the Antichrist. He wrote, so that in saying, "For the mystery
of iniquity doth already work,"[191]
he alluded to Nero, whose deeds already seemed to be as the deeds of Antichrist.[155]
Most scholars,[192][193]
such as Delbert Hillers (Johns
Hopkins University) of the
American Schools of Oriental Research and the editors of the Oxford & Harper
Collins study Bibles, contend that the number
666 in the
Book of Revelation is a code for Nero,[194]
a view that is also supported in
Roman Catholic Biblical commentaries.[195][196]
When treated as Hebrew numbers, the letters of Nero's name add up either to 616
or 666, representing the two devil numbers given in ancient versions of
Revelation and the two ways of spelling his name in Hebrew (NERO and NERON).
The concept of Nero as the Antichrist is often a central
belief of
Preterist
eschatology.
Nero
in post-ancient culture
Nero
in medieval and Renaissance literature
Usually as a stock exemplar of vice or a bad ruler:
Nero
in modern culture
Nero
in music
Nero is the main (or at least an important character) of some
musical works, as the operas:
He is also an inspiration for:
He is referenced in:
Nero
in IT
|